Piperine is the alkaloid that gives black pepper, Piper nigrum (Piperaceae), and Piper longum L., also known as long pepper, their pungency.

 

Piperine

Piperine is the most common dietary alkaloid found in the fruits and roots of the Piperaceae family's Piper nigrum L. (black pepper) and Piper longum L. (long pepper) species. Piperine is chemically 1-Piperoylpiperidine, and it is responsible for pepper's unique pungency and biting flavour. Antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, immunomodulatory, anti-asthmatic, anti-convulsant, anti-mutagenic, anti-mycobacterial, anti-amoebic, and anti-cancer properties have been discovered in it. Piperine has been shown to have chemopreventive properties against cancer cells of diverse origins by activating apoptotic signals and inhibiting cell cycle progression in numerous investigations.

Piperine is also known for its effects on redox homeostasis, cancer stem cell (CSC) self-renewal, ER stress regulation, autophagy, cancer cell invasion, metastasis, and angiogenesis. It works by inhibiting P-gp and so reversing multidrug resistance in cancer cells. Piperine functions as a bioavailability enhancer for various chemotherapeutic drugs by affecting the drug metabolising enzyme (DME) system.

Piperine is the main alkaloid found in black pepper (Piper nigrum) and long pepper (Piper longum) (Piper longum). Piperine possesses analgesic, anticonvulsant, anticancer, and antiinflammatory effects, among others (Derosa et al., 2016; Jaisin et al., 2020; Smilkov et al., 2019). Piperine has been proven in several trials to reduce the inflammatory response associated with chronic disorders such Alzheimer's disease, asthma, arthritis, chronic gastritis, endometritis, Parkinson's disease, and others.

Due to the change in enzyme kinetics, piperine of black pepper produces an increase in intestinal brush border membrane fluidity and stimulates the activities of membrane bound enzymes. Piperine increased the length of microvilli in ultrastructural tests. As a result, piperine may cause changes in membrane dynamics and permeation properties, as well as the stimulation of proteins involved in cytoskeletal function, resulting in an increase in the absorptive surface and supporting efficient permeation through the epithelial barrier.

Due to the particular alteration of the ultrastructure and permeability properties of small intestines caused by dietary black pepper/piperine, red pepper/capsaicin, and ginger, these spices have been investigated for their potential impact on mineral absorption. Iron, zinc, calcium, and -carotene absorption from the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum regions of the small intestines isolated from rats fed these spices was found to be higher. These pungent spices change permeability properties, presumably via increasing absorptive surface and thereby improving micronutrient absorption in the intestine.

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